Canadian Immigration Updates
Review details about the recently announced changes to study and work permits that apply to master’s and doctoral degree students. Read more
UBC values diversity and strongly encourages dedicated international students to apply to our graduate programs.
About 35% of master’s students, and 47% of doctoral students at UBC Vancouver are international students. We have close to 3,900 doctoral students and 7,250 master’s students, the fourth largest graduate student population among Canadian universities, and our 85 academic units offer over 250 research-based programs and 85 course-based master’s programs.
Why come to UBC?
Scholarships, Awards and Funding
UBC is a research powerhouse and invests heavily into attracting the best young scientists into its programs. Compared to other institutions of similar reputation UBC offers very high quality education at a significantly subsidized low tuition cost. Apart from the low base tuition excellent candidates for research-programs will benefit from scholarships and awards.
Common Questions
Do I require an English language test?
Applicants from a university outside Canada in which English is not the primary language of instruction must provide results of an English language proficiency examination as part of their application. Tests must have been taken within the last 24 months at the time of submission of your application.
The value of strong English skills
English is one of the two official languages of Canada, and the primary language of instruction at UBC. Strong English skills mean new students can settle quickly into their academic environment, and get to know their fellow students and faculty members who will be their colleagues during their time at UBC. Students with good English skills are far more likely to succeed; they experience far less stress and get greater enjoyment and fulfillment from their studies.
Applicants are advised to focus on learning how to speak, listen, read, and write in English, independent of studying for the TOEFL (or other tests), as this will best prepare them for communicating in all types of situations. Students with strong English skills are more likely to do well on the TOEFL.
Individual graduate programs may require higher English language proficiency scores, and may require minimum scores on individual components of any of the tests. Please check individual program websites to verify English language score requirements.
Acceptable Tests
English Language Tests
TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language)
The minimum TOEFL score required for all applicants to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies is
- 90 for the internet-based exam (with minimum component scores of 22 [reading, listening] and 21 [writing, speaking]) or
- 55 each for reading, listening, and writing in the paper-based test, with 4.0 on the Test of Written English (TWE).
Some programs require a higher score.
Important:
- TOEFL ibT Home is accepted for admission to UBC-Vancouver.
- TOEFL ITP and TOEFL Essentials are not accepted for admission.
- TOEFL MyBest composite scores are not accepted for applications to UBC-Vancouver.
- Minimum scores must be achieved in a single sitting of the test (i.e. scores from multiple test-taking instances may not be used to satisfy minimum component requirements.)
Score submission
UBC requires an official score to be sent to us electronically directly from the test centre/ETS.
On the TOEFL score request form you will be asked to specify the receiving institutions where you would like the results being sent to. To ensure UBC receives your results correctly, you have to use the following details:
- In the electronic score request form in your ETS manager, use institution code 0965 and pick "Graduate Organization" in Vancouver, BC, Canada.
- If you use a paper request form, use institution code 0965 and institution name "University of British Columbia".
- Both electronic and paper form ask for a department name/code. Either pick the value of an appropriate fit to your study area or 99 for other.
- If you are asked to give a reason for taking the TOEFL test then select/enter: "to enter a college or university as a graduate student"
IELTS (International English Language Testing Service)
A minimum overall band score of 6.5 is required with a minimum score of 6.0 in each component of the academic (NOT general) IELTS test.*
Individual graduate programs may require higher English language proficiency scores, and may require minimum scores on individual components of the test. Please check individual program websites to verify English language score requirements.
Important:
-
IELTS Online is accepted for Applications to UBC-Vancouver
-
IELTS Indicator is not accepted for Applications to UBC-Vancouver.
Score submission
UBC requires an official score to be sent to us electronically from the test centre.
On the IELTS application form you will be asked to specify institutions where you would like the results being sent to. To ensure UBC receives your results correctly, you have to use the following details on the application:
- Name and address of college / institution / university: University of British Columbia - Graduate School Admissions
- Address: 170-6371 Crescent Road, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z2, Canada
CAEL (Canadian Academic English Language Assessment)
A minimum overall score of 70 is required with 60 on the speaking sub-test.
Individual graduate programs may require higher English language proficiency scores. Please check individual program websites to verify English language score requirements.
Score submission
UBC requires an official paper record of this test score.
UBC English Language Institute
English for Academic Purposes (EAP): Applicant must achieve a 75% in each component of the 600 level.
PTE (Pearson Test of English - Academic)
A minimum overall score of 65 on the academic (NOT general) test is required with minimums of 60 reading, 60 writing, 60 listening, and 60 speaking.
Individual graduate programs may require higher English language proficiency scores. Please check individual program websites to verify English language score requirements.
Important:
-
PTE Home / Online are not accepted for application to UBC-Vancouver
Score submission
Please email graduate.apply@ubc.ca when you have a test score ready for download.
Alternative Tests
Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB)
A minimum overall MELAB final score of 85 (with 3 in the speaking test) is required by the Faculty of Graduate Studies.
Alternative English Language Proficiency Test
CAE (Certificate in Advanced English): B
CPE (Certificate of Proficiency in English): C
Submission of Test Results
TOEFL and IELTS test takers can request electronic submission of scores to universities. We accept electronic delivery directly from the test centre to UBC only. For all other tests an official paper test score report ordered from the testing agency is required. Photocopies of test scores are not acceptable.
What are the academic minimum requirements by country?
Applicants should have academic backgrounds within the general requirements listed by country below.
Given that the number of applicants exceeds the number of positions available, a record that satisfies basic entrance requirements does not guarantee admission to graduate studies.
Important note to students with three-year bachelor's degrees from European institutions (except UK): Most three-year, Bologna-compliant degrees from research-intensive universities are acceptable as a basis for admission to master's programs at UBC. Contact the UBC program of interest and see individual country listings below for further information.
Other Resources
Other sites that might come in handy as you prepare to apply:
How do I submit transcripts and degree parchments?
Process
- For your INITIAL APPLICATION we only accept scanned copies of original documents or self-uploaded digital copies.
- If you receive an ADMISSION OFFER, you will have to provide hard copies or secure electronic delivery of academic documents.
Initial Application
Each entry under the Academic History section of the application must include pdf copies of official, up-to-date, transcripts for all current and previous post-secondary study (see exception for current and former UBC students below).
Note: Grade sheets/records are not transcripts and will not be accepted in lieu of copies of official transcripts.
Uploading transcripts in the application system
Current and former UBC students
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The application to graduate school must be made under the current/former CWL (Campus-wide Login). Applying with the correct CWL will automatically transfer the UBC record into the application.
-
Official academic documentation for all other post-secondary institutions that have been attended (e.g., exchange year, transfer year, etc.) will need to be uploaded as part of the application.
Applicants with Canadian transcripts
Applicants with Canadian transcripts (other than UBC) must obtain an official transcript for every post-secondary institution they have attended.
- Each transcript should be scanned as an individual .pdf file and then uploaded to the application system as indicated.
- Users of the MyCreds | MesCertif digital service have to download the documents as PDF (see video “How to download my document as a PDF”) and self-upload to the application system. Documents sent via secure electronic delivery to UBC as receiving organization directly will not be accepted for initial application purposes!
- Please refer to any directions provided by the selected graduate program on naming scanned document files. Otherwise, files should be named: "Applicant Full Name-Document Description.extension"
Examples:
Peng Zhang-University of Waterloo Transcript.pdf
Peng Zhang-CV.pdf
Peng Zhang-Journal of Neurosciences Paper.pdf
- Transcripts must be scanned front and back.
- All pages of a transcript must be uploaded as a single file (rather than a separate file for each page).
- The online application system provides additional, detailed directions on scanning and uploading of documentation.
Applicants with international transcripts
Applicants must obtain an official transcript for every post-secondary institution they have attended (other than UBC).
- Each transcript must be scanned as an individual .pdf file and uploaded to the application system as indicated.
- Scan both sides of the transcript and/or degree certificate where there is information, notations, or stamps from the issuing institution.
- Please refer to any directions provided by the selected graduate program on naming scanned document files. Otherwise, files should be named: "Applicant Full Name-Document Description.extension"
Examples:
Peng Zhang-Peking University Transcript.pdf
Peng Zhang-Peking University Transcript English Translation.pdf
Peng Zhang-CV.pdf
Peng Zhang-Journal of Neurosciences Paper.pdf
- Each transcript must be uploaded as a single file (rather than a separate file for each page).
- If you have documents that are issued in a language other than English, then, in addition to uploading digital copies of the documents in their original language, you must also upload a certified literal English translation of your transcripts from your home university's translation service or a certified English translator.
- The online application system provides additional, detailed directions on scanning and uploading of academic documentation.
After Being offered Admission
Conditional admission offers are made based on documents uploaded to the application system. Once an offer of admission is received:
- A list of required transcripts will be posted in the applicant's online portal.
- G+PS (Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies) must receive one set of all required official transcripts for every (non-UBC) post-secondary institution attended for the equivalent of one year or more of full-time study.
- Note: UBC reserves the right to also require any individual applicant to provide official transcripts for study of less than one year duration.
- Do not send official transcripts before receiving an offer of admission unless special instructions were received from the selected graduate program.
- Applicants will not be allowed to register in a graduate program until the initial transcript requirements are met.
How to Submit Official Academic Documents
To be considered official, academic records must either be received in official university envelopes, sealed and endorsed by the issuing institution, or be received via secure electronic delivery from the issuing institution.
Current and former UBC students
If you applied with your CWL account, your transcript will have been received electronically. No hard copies of UBC transcripts are required. Please ensure to submit official documents of any other institutions.
Applicants with Canadian transcripts
Documents being provided to meet conditions of admission should be sent directly to:
Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies
The University of British Columbia
170 - 6371 Crescent Rd
Vancouver, BC CANADA V6T 1Z2
Applicants from Canadian institutions that participate in the MyCreds | MesCertif service for secure electronic delivery should follow the instructions below under "secure electronic delivery."
Applicants with international transcripts
To be considered official, academic records must either be received in official university envelopes, sealed and endorsed by the issuing institution, or be received via secure electronic delivery from the issuing institution.
If your university issues only one original set of academic documents (transcripts/degree certificates):
Make photocopies of your original academic documents and send them to your home university. Ask your home university to:
- Verify that the photocopies are consistent with their records.
- Attest that the copies are true photocopies and stamp them with an official university stamp.
- Put the attested, stamped photocopies in sealed envelopes endorsed by the Registrar.
- Mail the sealed, endorsed envelopes directly to Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies.
If your academic documents are issued in a language other than English:
- Order a set of academic documents in the original language along with certified literal English translations from your home university's translation service.
If your home university does not provide English translation:
- Photocopy a set of your documents.
- Take the copy to a certified English translator and order a complete, word-by-word, literal English translation.
- Direct the translator to put both the original language photocopy and the English translation into a sealed envelope, and endorse the envelope by signing across the seal.
- Send the sealed, endorsed envelopes from the translator to UBC Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies.
- Important: Remember that UBC will still require a set of official academic documents received directly from your home institution.
Note: Academic records must be translated in their entirety, including any information that appears on the reverse side of any document.
UBC does not accept the following:
- Photocopies that have not been stamped, attested and endorsed by the Registrar at your home university
- Documents in envelopes that have been opened
- Documents that do not arrive in sealed envelopes endorsed by the issuing institution or certified translator
- Documents that arrive without the official seal of the university
- Photocopies notarized by a notary public
- Photocopies endorsed by a lawyer, professor, judge etc.
- Unofficial translations
- Non-literal translations
Do not order academic records that are not in sealed and endorsed envelopes, or not sent by secure electronic delivery. It will only delay the processing of your application.
Documents being provided by post/courier to meet conditions of admission must be sent directly to:
Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies
The University of British Columbia
170 - 6371 Crescent Rd
Vancouver, BC CANADA V6T 1Z2
See below for information on meeting the condition of admission with secure electronic documents.
Document Ownership
Documents submitted in support of applications become the property of the University and are not returned to the applicant or student. Refer to the UBC Academic Calendar statement on ownership of application documents.
Applicants are strongly discouraged from sending irreplaceable documents and are advised to follow the instructions for verified copies found under Official Academic Documents, above.
Secure Electronic Delivery
UBC works with the following digital document providers:
MyCreds | MesCertif (Canada)
Applicants from Canadian institutions that participate in the MyCreds | MesCertif service for secure electronic delivery of transcripts/parchments should log in to the Learner Portal and share their documents to this registered organization:
University of British Columbia (UBC) - Graduate Admissions | Vancouver Campus
Ensure that:
- You either don’t set an expiry date or provide at least 6 months of duration for documents to be available
- You provide the UBC student number (required) as part of your submission. You receive your student number with confirmation of your application submission to a UBC graduate program.
- You can review videos explaining the process in the How-To Videos.
My eQuals (Australia / New Zealand)
Applicants from Australian and New Zealand institutions that participate in the My eQuals service for secure electronic delivery of transcripts/parchments should log in to the Learner Portal and share their documents to this registered organization:
University of British Columbia (UBC) - Graduate Admissions | Vancouver Campus
China Credentials Verification CSSD (China)
Applicants from Chinese institutions that participate in CSSD (formerly CHESICC) service for secure electronic delivery of transcripts/parchments can share their documents via graduate.ts@ubc.ca
Digitary Core (European & international institutions)
Applicants from institutions that participate in the Digitary platform for secure electronic delivery of transcripts/parchments should log in to the Learner Portal and share their documents to this registered organization:
University of British Columbia (UBC) - Graduate Admissions | Vancouver Campus
Other electronic delivery
The issuing institution must send a link to a secure site to Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (G+PS) at graduate.ts@ubc.ca. G+PS will download the transcript from the secure site. Important: an e-transcript is downloaded via a link to a secure site. It is NOT an email attachment of any kind, even if sent from an authority at the issuing institution.
Do I have to take the GRE?
Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
The Graduate Record Examination has two components: a General Test measuring verbal, quantitative, and analytical reasoning skills, and a Subject Test measuring achievement in particular fields of study. The table GRE Requirements by Program lists which graduate program at UBC requires a GRE test.
The UBC institution code is 0965.
GRE Requirements by Program
Specialization |
Program Name | GRE required? |
|---|---|---|
| Accounting | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Accounting (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Architecture | Master of Architecture (MARCH) | The GRE is optional. |
| Architecture | Master of Advanced Studies in Architecture (MASA) | The GRE is optional. |
| Atmospheric Science | Master of Science in Atmospheric Science (MSc) | The GRE is optional. |
| Atmospheric Science | Doctor of Philosophy in Atmospheric Science (PhD) | The GRE is optional. |
| Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | Master of Science in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | Doctor of Philosophy in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Business Administration | Professional Master of Business Administration (PMBA) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Business Administration | Master of Business Administration (MBA) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Business Administration | Master of Management (MM) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Business Administration | Master of Business Analytics (MBAN) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Chemistry | Master of Science in Chemistry (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Chemistry | Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Civil Engineering | Doctor of Philosophy in Civil Engineering (PhD) | The GRE is optional. |
| Counselling Psychology | Master of Arts in Counselling Psychology (MA) | The GRE is required by all applicants. |
| Counselling Psychology | Doctor of Philosophy in Counselling Psychology (PhD) | The GRE is required by all applicants. |
| Economics | Master of Arts in Economics (MA) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Economics | Doctor of Philosophy in Economics (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Finance | Master of Science in Business Administration in Finance (MSCB) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Finance | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Finance (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Health Administration | Master of Health Administration (MHA) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Linguistics | Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics (PhD) | The GRE is optional. |
| Linguistics | Master of Arts in Linguistics (MA) | The GRE is optional. |
| Management Information Systems | Master of Science in Business Administration in Management Information Systems (MSCB) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Management Information Systems | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Management Information Systems (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Management Science | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Management Science (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Marketing and Behavioural Science | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Marketing and Behavioural Science (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Measurement, Evaluation and Research Methodology | Doctor of Philosophy in Measurement, Evaluation and Research Methodology (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Mechanical Engineering | Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering (PhD) | The GRE is optional. |
| Mechanical Engineering | Master of Applied Science in Mechanical Engineering (MASc) | The GRE is optional. |
| Nursing | Master of Science in Nursing (MSN) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Nursing | Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Occupational and Environmental Hygiene | Master of Science in Occupational and Environmental Hygiene (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Organizational Behavior | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Organizational Behaviour (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Pathology and Laboratory Medicine | Master of Science in Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Pathology and Laboratory Medicine | Doctor of Philosophy in Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Planning | Doctor of Philosophy in Planning (PhD) | The GRE is optional. |
| Planning | Master of Arts in Planning (MAP) | The GRE is optional. |
| Planning | Master of Science in Planning (MSCP) | The GRE is optional. |
| Political Science | Master of Arts in Political Science (MA) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Political Science | Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Population and Public Health | Master of Public Health (MPH) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Population and Public Health | Master of Science in Population and Public Health (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Population and Public Health | Doctor of Philosophy in Population and Public Health (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Psychology | Master of Arts in Psychology (MA) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Psychology | Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Rehabilitation Sciences | Master of Science in Rehabilitation Sciences (MSc) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Rehabilitation Sciences | Doctor of Philosophy in Rehabilitation Sciences (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Special Education | Doctor of Philosophy in Special Education (PhD) | The GRE is required by some applicants. Please check the program website. |
| Strategy & Business Economics | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Strategy and Business Economics (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Transportation & Logistics | Master of Science in Business Administration in Transportation and Logistics (MSCB) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Transportation & Logistics | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Transportation and Logistics (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
| Urban Land Economics | Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration in Urban Land Economics (PhD) | The GRE or a comparable test is required. Please check the program website. |
Graduate Management Test (GMAT)
Applicants to the MBA and MScB programs in the Faculty of Commerce and Business Administration are required to submit GMAT results (applicants to the MScB in Transportation may submit the GRE or the GMAT). Applicants to the PhD program in the Faculty of Commerce and Business Administration must submit either GMAT or GRE results.
Where is UBC and what is the campus like?
The University of British Columbia's Vancouver campus is located at the western tip of the Point Grey Peninsula, close to the city of Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada. UBC's second campus - Okanagan campus - is located in Kelowna, about 5 hours north-east of Vancouver.
UBC's Point Grey (Vancouver) campus, sits on the traditional, ancestral, unceded territory of the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) First Nation. More than 400 hectares in size, the stunning campus is surrounded by forest on three sides and ocean on the fourth, and is just a 30 minute bus ride to Vancouver's downtown core. Although many buildings on campus are quite new, the University's history actually dates back to 1877.
Campus locations
Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies is responsible for the majority of graduate students at the Vancouver campus, including those who study at many of the affiliated facilities in the city of Vancouver and BC. The majority of graduate programs are offered at the Point Grey campus or the affiliated facilities, one program (Digital Media) is offered at the Great Northern Way Campus (Vancouver) and few programs such as the Master of Health Administration and business programs are offered at UBC Robson Square (Downtown Vancouver). If you are interested in the Okanagan campus (Kelowna, BC), please visit the website of the College of Graduate Studies.
International Students
Campus Videos
Campus Map
The main campus is bounded by Chancellor Boulevard to the northwest, Marine Drive to the southwest, Wesbrook Mall to the northeast, and West 16th Avenue to the southeast. This represents the administrative and educational core of UBC.
The South Campus is bounded by Southwest Marine Drive to the south, West 16th Avenue to the northwest, and Pacific Spirit Park to the northeast. The South Campus houses many research facilities.
The East Campus is bounded by West 16th Avenue on the south, Wesbrook Mall on the west, Acadia Road on the east, and on the north its border zigzags from Toronto Road to Agronomy Road to Fairview Avenue. A large part of the East Campus is made up of student, faculty and staff housing, along with child care buildings and the local police and fire department. UBC's first market housing development, known as Hampton Place, is also located here.
Campus Tours
Due to the diversity of our many research facilities, we do not offer campus tours specifically for graduate students. However, individual departments or research groups may offer open houses or other outreach events that may allow you to visit their facilities. Please check on the websites of individual departments or programs for such opportunities.
You can enjoy one of our many self-guided campus walking tours, such as from the Sustainability Initiative or the Art Outdoor Tour. Or you may decide to walk in Pacific Spirit Regional Park.
Or try out one of these five 30 minute walking maps:
Once you're here, there are several options for getting around campus—you can walk, bike and for longer distances there are convenient and accessible shuttle buses to get you where you need to go. Find more information on how to get around campus.
If you have a temporary or permanent condition that limits your mobility, the Accessibility Shuttle can help you get around areas of campus that can only be reached on foot. The shuttle is a free, shared-ride service; you can book up to three trips a day. Each building in the service area is within 100 meters of a shuttle stop.
Attractions on Campus
How much will it cost?
UBC is located in one of the most livable cities in the world which affects living costs - a challenge that many major metropolitan centres face. Your perception of costs may depend on from where you will be joining UBC. If you are relocating from a similarly popular metropolis, costs may be comparable. For others, the costs may come as a surprise. G+PS provides this estimator as a starting point to create a financial plan and budget. Please note that the estimator can only provide estimates and broad projections. We cannot guarantee availability of listed rates. We link to relevant sources for you to verify data and account for market changes since we last updated our data.
UBC expects you to assume primary responsibility for covering the cost of your education and supporting any family members who might accompany you. It is especially important to plan your finances for the entire duration of the degree. G+PS provides average completion times for most graduate programs in the degree listing under the heading "Enrolment, Duration & Other Stats". Financial awards may be restricted in their duration and in many cases end after four years. With help of the completion data and this annual cost estimator, you can plan a multi-year budget and account for a possible funding drop which usually occurs in upper years.
